The mountain pine beetle (Denroctonus ponderosae Hopk.) population has reached epidemic proportions in British Columbia and is affecting forests from southern coastal regions to the northern border with Alberta. British Columbia parks and protected areas are no exception. Population modeling has predicted that the beetle will continue to play a role in shaping forests until at least 2020 (Eng et al. 2004).

B.A. Blackwell and Associates Ltd. was contracted to conduct terrestrial ecosystem mapping (TEM) in Jackman Flats Provincial Park. The purpose of this project was to collect ecological data to assist Provincial Park staff in their efforts to mitigate the impact of mountain pine beetle in the Park, while protecting important Park values. To support this endeavour, additional information was also compiled in the field, interpreted from air photographs and TEM data including:

· provincial fuel types,

· ecosystem sensitivity to disturbance,

· structural stage

The information will provide Park staff with an ecological basis for decision making that will ensure that best management practices are followed, especially in sensitive and endangered ecosystems in the Park.

1.1 Study Area

Jackman Flats Provincial Park is located 13 km north of Valemount. It is 615 ha in size. The western boundary is Highway 5 and the eastern boundary is located near Blackman Road. The Park is primarily sand dunes that formed 11,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. It is located in the dry hot Sub-boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic subzone (SBSdh). There is also an anthropogenically modified wetland complex along the western boundary of the Park.

Large areas of the Park are open and are comprised of scattered lodgepole pine, shrubs, herbs and abundant lichen species. The abundance and variety of lichen species in the Park was one of the prime considerations in the creation of the Park. The forested areas are primarily young and mature stands of Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), although Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), hybrid white spruce (Picea glauca x engelmannii), and Trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) occur in moister ecosystems.

2.0 Methods

Mapping procedures followed the general methods outlined in Standard for Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping in British Columbia (RIC, 1998) with some modifications to meet project objectives. Areas encompassing similar ecosystems were delineated on aerial photographs, data was collected in the field to characterize ecological properties, and a set of attributes was then assigned to each delineation based on field data and interpretation of air photos. All the data were compiled in a digital GIS (geographic information system) database. The principal ecological features recognized in delineations included site units, structural stage, and site modifiers. Site units represent different ecosystems as identified in available ecological classification systems (Meidinger et al. 1988). These are based on the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification for British Columbia (Meidinger and Pojar 1991). Structural stage represents the type of vegetation development (e.g. shrub/herb, young forest, old forest, etc.). Site modifiers represent additional information on site properties such as slope, shallow soils, ravines etc.

Photo typing was done on alternate 1:20,000 colour air photos from a 1985 flight. This was the most recent comprehensive coverage available for the Park available at the time. Photo typing involved the delineation of areas encompassing similar ecosystems that focused on recognizable terrain and landscape properties (physiography, parent materials), and ecological properties (sites, structural stage).

2.1 Field Sampling

The goal of the field-sampling phase was to check as many locations as possible within the budget and time available. The focus was on characterizing the ecological composition of mapped polygons, checking polygon boundaries, particularly between biogeoclimatic units, and characterizing site unit features. This provided data for known points on air photos which was then used for interpreting “photo signatures” when assigning polygon attributes. The sampling program was carried out using a 2-person crew.

A sampling plan was prepared before field work commenced. This involved viewing each typed air photo with a stereoscope and marking locations on maps produced with orthophotographs where checking should be aimed. This generally focused on sites which were representative of the area, or which appeared difficult to interpret from the photos. These pre-marked orthophoto maps served as a guide to direct sampling in the field. The intent was to sample as many of these sites as possible, while allowing flexibility in checking additional sites as the need was determined by the field crew.

Field inspections consisted of two types: ground inspections and visual inspections. Ground inspections were used to gather key ecological properties at specific points on the ground, including information on site unit composition in the area around the sample point. Figure 1 shows the data collected on the ground inspection form.

Figure 1. Form used to collect TEM data in the field.

Visual inspections consisted of brief photo annotations made while walking through polygons. Sampling was conducted from May 2 to May 3, 2006.

All field inspections were located on the orthophoto maps, and labeled with their inspection numbers. Inspection locations were also collected as waypoints in the field using Garmin 76 GPS units. These labeled waypoints were downloaded and transferred to an ArcMap location layer.

Chartwell Consultants (North Vancouver, B.C.) undertook digitizing of polygon linework using mono-restitution techniques.

2.2 Setup prior to attributing

The following items were assembled before commencing with the final ecosystem attributing phase:

· basic polygon map. This contained just the polygon linework and numbers and was used for tracking attributing progress and noting revisions.

· inspection/polygons. This contained polygon linework and numbers, inspection locations and numbers.

· field inspection database sorted by air photo and inspection number.

2.3 Building the attribute database

Attributing progressed on a photo-by-photo basis. As the Park is entirely within the SBSdh, no subzone boundaries were required. The first step was to create final attributes for polygons on each photo. The following information was reviewed prior to deciding on the appropriate attributes: relevant field inspection and supplemental data around each polygon, polygon features from air photo interpretation, final attributes of adjacent polygons, and preliminary attributes for the polygon where noted on the photos. Once decided, the attributes were entered directly into a database.

Fuel types were interpreted from the airphotos according to the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System. Fuel types were assigned based upon species mix, height, crown closure and field observations. Structural stage was determined according to the type of site unit. Non-forested site units featured a characteristic structural stage (e.g. wetlands are characteristically “herb” structural stage, shrub-dominated bogs are “shrub/herb” structural stage, etc.). For forested site units, structural stage varied according to stand development since the last disturbance (e.g. stand height, age). Forest inventory data was referenced for this information in assigning structural stage as field sampling could not include comprehensive stand age measurements. In some cases, structural stage was based on field observations when they were clearly inconsistent with the forest inventory data.

2.4 Editing and Algorithms

Two main editing phases were conducted: a) editing the final attribute database prior to linking it with the spatial polygon data, and, b) editing the linked spatial and attribute data. In the first phase, the Excel database of final attributes was thoroughly reviewed using a series of filters and sorts. The following issues were checked and corrected where required:

· inconsistencies and errors in the field codes

· polygon components not summing to 100%

Editing of the GIS data was done using ArcView GIS. A series of themes was created from the preliminary GIS data that included structural stage and site series. These were used to conduct the edit of the GIS data. The structural stage and site series themes were initially checked for obvious anomalies, and then compared against the typed airphotos and the original maps containing the BGC unit boundaries. Polygons with missing attributes were also highlighted on the BGC unit theme and were corrected directly in ArcView.

The results of the above editing were fully incorporated into the GIS database, then a final quality check was conducted to identify any outstanding issues. These were corrected to produce the final clean GIS database.

A column in the database, showing a rating of ecosystem sensitivity to disturbance, was derived from the TEM data through a series of algorithms combined with field observations.

3.0 The Ecosystems in Jackman Flats

3.1 Overview

The Park is located in the SBSdh biogeoclimatic subzone and is between 770 and 805 m in elevation. It consists primarily of an aeolian sand dune complex deposited during the late Pleistocene Epoch. Presently, it is a mosaic of raised dunes dominated by lichens, scattered Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine) and several shrub species and forested sites with crown closures and species mixes reflective of edaphic conditions. The dominant site series is 02, however this is differentiated into 02 and 02x types based upon soil moisture and structural stage. Site series 04 is also common and has an overstory of lodgepole pine. While the nutrient regimes in most of the Park are very poor to poor, there are several areas of site series 06. Closer to the southwestern border of the Park, soil moisture increases and site series 05 becomes more common and often borders 09 sites. However, soil hydrology appears to have been altered on the 09 sites, leading to a lowering of the water table in the last fifteen years and floristic changes. Table 1 and Figure 2 show the sites series and areas.

Table 1. Summary of site units found in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

Site Series/Unit	Name	Area (ha)
	SBSdh
01	Douglas-fir - Hybrid White Spruce- Rough-Leaved Ricegrass	5.5
02	Velvet-leaved Blueberry - Lichen	217.0
02x	Dry Velvet-leaved Blueberry - Lichen	88.7
04	Pine - Pinegrass - Feathermoss	105.4
05	Pine - Labrador Tea	101.6
06	Pine - Hybrid White Spruce - Thimbleberry	10.1
09	Black Spruce - Sphagnum	80.0
CB	Cutbank	6.3
CF	Cultivated Field	1.3
Total Area		615.8

Figure 2. Map of the leading site series in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

3.2 Site Series and Site Unit Descriptions

CF – Cultivated Field

A portion of an old cultivated field is located on the western boundary of the Park.

CB – Cutbank

A small section of the Park includes a cutbank adjacent to Canadian Nation Railway tracks.

SBSdh 01 – Douglas-fir–Hybrid White Spruce–Rough-Leaved Ricegrass

A minor amount of site series 01 was identified on the northeastern boundary of the Park. It occurs in a swale located at the base of a slope directly adjacent to the highway. Tree species include Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), Picea glauca x engelmannii (hybrid white spruce) and lodgepole pine. Understory species are Rosa acicularis (prickly rose), Aster conspicuous (showy aster), Linnaea borealis (twinflower) and Cornus canadensis (bunchberry). Mosses are primarily Pleurozium schreberi (red-stemmed feather moss), Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus (electrified cat’s tail moss), and Hylocomium splendens (step moss). The soil moisture regime (SMR) for these sites is mesic (4) and the soil nutrient regime (SNR) is medium (C). They are primarily mature forests.

SBSdh 02x – Dune Sites

In the Park, 02 is the most common site series. It occurs on shrub/herb dunes and forested sites with lichens. These can be distinguished from one another through soil moisture and structural stage. The Dune Sites have drier than average soil moisture and are distinguished in the database with an ‘x’ site modifier. In addition, tree cover is generally less than 10% and shrub cover is generally less than 20% because of the dry conditions. As lichens are often the dominant vegetation in these types, they are classified as bryoid structural stage. The forested sites are more typical 02 site series. Stand structure is young to mature.

The dunes are topographically raised areas with scattered lodgepole pine and crown closure generally less than 10%. Xerophytes such as Juniper communis (common juniper), Cladina rangiferina (grey reindeer lichen), Cladina mitis (green reindeer lichen) and Stereocaulon condensatum (granular soil-foam lichen) form large contiguous mats of vegetation[1]. Minor amounts of Arctostaphylos urva-ursi (Kinnikinnick) occur along the margins. The SMR for these sites is xeric (0) and the SNR is very poor (A). These sites are the driest extreme of 02 site series (Pl-Velvet-Leaved Blueberry – Lichen). The soil is sand with little or no humus layer. Fire scars from low severity surface fires are evident on some of the trees in these communities indicating a frequent historic fire return interval.

Figure 3. Photograph showing dune SBSdh 02x site series.

SBSdh 02 – Velvet-leaved Blueberry–Lichen

These sites are located on large relatively flat areas within the Park often adjacent to the dunes. The crown closure in these communities is between 20-50% and lodgepole pine is the only tree species present. Most of the stands are structurally either young or mature forest. The plant community is comprised of lichen species similar to those found on the 02x sites but with lesser abundances, and occasional Peltigera canina (dog lichen). The shrub community is better developed with greater abundance of species such as common juniper, kinnikinnick and minor amounts of Shepherdia canadensis (soopolallie), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry) and Vaccinium myrtilloides (velvet-leaved blueberry). The moss layer includes minor amounts of red-stemmed feather moss. The SMR for these sites is xeric-subxeric (1-2) and the SNR is poor (B). The soil is sand with a 1-3 cm mor/moder humus form. Multiple fire scars from low severity surface fires are also evident on many of the trees in this community. In the absence of fire for the last several decades, young lodgepole pines have become established in these open forests.

Figure 4. Photo showing young forest SBSdh 02 site series.

SBSdh 04 – Lodgepole Pine–Pinegrass–Feathermoss

Pine/Feathermoss communities are located in slight swales that are lower topographically than the 02 communities. The crown closure is 50-80% and lodgepole pine is the only tree species. Lichens other than peltigera species are scarce. The shrub species present are similar to 02 sites but include species such as Spiraea betulifolia (birch-leaved spirea) and prickly rose. Peltigera aphthosa (freckled lichen) and dog lichen are commonly found. Soopolallie and mosses including red-stemmed feather moss and Dicranum polysetum (wavy-leaved moss) are more abundant than on 02 sites. The SMR is subxeric to submesic and the SNR is poor. Soils are sandy and humus forms are 1-5 cm thick mors. Fire scars are rare in these stands, suggesting that mixed severity to stand replacement severity fires were important on these sites.

Figure 5. Photo showing SBSdh 04 site series.

SBSdh 05 – Lodgepole Pine–Labrador Tea

Pine/Spruce communities are located primarily in the southern region of the Park on depressions, lower slopes, or adjacent to wetlands. The crown closure is 50-85% and lodgepole pine, hybrid white spruce, and Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen) occur in varying mixes. In addition to the species found on 04 sites, freckled lichen is quite common, and Ledum groenlandicum (Labrador tea), Cornus canadensis (bunchberry), Linnaea borealis (twinflower), Lycopodium complanatum (ground-cedar), Ptilium crista-castrensis (knight’s plume), and Hylocomium splendens (step moss) occur. The SMR is submesic to mesic and the SNR is poor. The soils are sandy and the humus form is a 3-5 cm thick mor. Fire scars were largely absent in these stands, indicating that stand replacing fires might have occurred historically.

Figure 6. Photo showing SBSdh 05 site series.

SBSdh 06 – Lodgepole Pine–Hybrid White Spruce–Thimbleberry

Several Pine/Spruce/Thimbleberry communities exist in the Park. Lodgepole pine, hybrid white spruce, and trembling aspen occur and crown closure is between 50-60%. The vegetation on these sites is composed of bunchberry, Fragaria virginiana (wild strawberry), Pyrola asarifolia (pink wintergreen), Orthilia secunda (one-sided wintergreen), Lonicera involucrata (highbush cranberry), Labrador tea, twinflower, prickly rose, and Oryzopsis asperifolia (rough-leafed ricegrass) and knight’s plume. The SMR is subhygric and the SNR is medium to rich. The soil is sand and the humus form is a moder. On one of the sites, the soil was mottled at 70 cm and a water table was noted at 90 cm. No evidence of fire scars was noted. Windthrow due to the high water table was relatively common.

Figure 7. Photo showing SBSdh 06 site series.

SBSdh 09 – Black Spruce–Sphagnum

Complexes of SBSdh/09 and sphagnum bogs are located in some depressions along the southern boundary of the Park. The dominant tree species is Picea mariana (black spruce) and tree cover is highly variable from dense thickets to open pole sapling stands. Betula glandulosa (scrub birch), Oxycoccus oxcycoccus (bog cranberry), Labrador tea, and sphagnum species are common understory species. The SMR is mesic to subhydric and the SNR is very poor to poor.

Soil hydrology appears to have been altered approximately 15-20 years ago on many of these sites, which has resulted in a change in the depth of the water table. While the reason for this change is unclear, it has resulted in these ecosystems becoming drier. In areas where soil moisture is less affected, the water table was found within 50-60 cm of the soil surface. However, the water table for some sites was still not located at a depth of over 1 m. The organic horizons are 15-20 cm thick moders. Floristically, these sites primarily correspond to 09 sites with common scrub birch and other characteristic species; however 15-year-old lodgepole pines are now established and plant species more commonly found on mesic sites are becoming established. To distinguish these altered sites, a drier than average (x) site modifier has been used in the database.

Figure 8. Photo showing SBSdh 09 site series.

4.0 Site Sensitivity to Disturbance

The primary reason for the creation of the Park was to protect the unique red-listed lichen dominated communities found in this area. Sensitivity ratings were developed primarily to reflect the importance of these values, especially in light of the fragility of these communities to frequent or severe disturbances. Terrestrial lichens were deemed more susceptible to damage than arboreal lichens, therefore estimated percent cover of terricolous lichens was one of the primary factors in the sensitivity ratings. Soil susceptibility to surface or aeolian erosion was also considered. The site series and site series modifiers in the TEM database were used to identify ecosystems with high lichen components and susceptible soils. Field observations were also used in assessing site sensitivity. Fall and burn or other larger scale treatments such as thinning and the associated access routes used in response to beetle attack were the primary disturbance types considered. Ratings from Very Low to High were developed. Figure 9 shows the sensitivity to disturbance.

Figure 9. Map showing site sensitivity to disturbance in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

High Sensitivity to Disturbance

The soils within in the Park are primarily sand. As such, the SBSdh 02x Dune Community is highly susceptible to erosion by wind due to topography and low vegetation cover. The extensive mats of lichen on these sites are easily disturbed and appear slow to recolonize after disturbance. Recent and historic ATV tracks in the south of the Park have exposed large areas of sand. It appears that recolonization of sites after extensive and intensive disturbance is at best a slow process due to the shifting nature of the exposed soil.

Disturbance

Fall and burn activities in the Dune Community could have negative and long lasting impacts upon these communities. The recovery time of lichen mats following severe disturbances has been estimated to be as long as 70-100 years, although Goward (2000) notes that minor low impact disturbance may aid in the dispersal of lichen fragments and the establishment of new mats. Disturbance intensity, such as fire intensity, has been shown to be important in determining recovery of lichen communities (Johanssson and Reich 2005). Fire severity on this site would have historically been very low. As vegetation cover is primarily contiguous lichen mats, severity would have been limited by lichen density, although lodgepole pine and highly flammable species like juniper would have resulted in localized areas of low to moderate fire severity. The burning of slash debris would result in higher fire severity and increased recovery times. As well, the removal of trees and dragging and burning of slash would increase aeolian erosion by damaging terricolous lichen communities and exposing the sandy soils.

Access routes should be designed to avoid these areas unless existing trail networks are used. In addition to direct impacts, changes in exposure to light and wind due to harvesting could have impacts upon these communities.

Moderate Sensitivity to Disturbance

The SBS 02 Pine Velvet-leaved Blueberry-Lichen sites are more resilient to disturbance and erosion than the 02x Dune Communities, as the vegetation is comprised of shrubs, in addition to lichens, which are less susceptible to physical disturbance than lichen dominated plant communities. The shrub cover helps stabilize the sandy soils, and in general, the topographic position of these sites is less exposed to wind. Lichen species on these sites are more widely distributed within the matrix of the shrubs, although some small contiguous lichen mats exist in areas that are more open.

Disturbance

These sites are more resilient than the Dune Communities to disturbance. Single tree removal would cause localized damage that would recover relatively rapidly. Evidence of this was noted in the field. However, the removal of larger groups of trees could change the microclimate in these areas, which could have a negative effect on some terrestrial lichens due to the increase in solar radiation. However, a reduction in crown density could also have a positive effect on some lichen species by slowing successional pathways that could result in domination of the understory by feathermoss (Coxson and Marsh 2001).

Low Sensitivity to Disturbance

SBSdh 01, 04, 05 and 06 (where pine was a significant component) sites were considered resilient to disturbance and less susceptible to erosion. These sites are more sheltered topographically than the 02 sites and shrubs comprise a larger component of the understory vegetation. Additionally, soil moisture is slightly greater on these sites, which should allow a more rapid recovery from disturbance than on xeric and subxeric sites. Crown closure and tree density is also greater on these sites and spruce species and trembling aspen are often minor or major components of the 05 and 06 sites. Terrestrial lichen species were also less common on these sites; the most abundant species was freckled lichen.

Disturbance

While these sites are less susceptible to disturbance, freckled lichens and species found commonly under closed canopies are often adapted to these cooler and moister conditions. Reductions in crown closure that greatly reduce solar interception would result in microclimate changes that could reduce the abundance and vigour of some lichen species. Small scale fall and burn openings would have less effect than larger clearings.

Very Low Sensitivity to Disturbance

SBSdh 06 (where pine is a minor component), 09, cutbanks, and old cultivated fields were considered to have very low sensitivity to disturbance due to the scarcity of lodgepole pine, the small diameters of the pine present, and the low abundance of lichens. As well, the mesic SMR conditions would permit faster recovery of vegetation than that found on xeric sites. Access routes through the 09 sites in which thick humus forms are present should be avoided as soil disturbance and compaction hazards on these sites can be considerable.

Disturbance

These sites are less susceptible to disturbance and, due to the scarcity of pine on most of these sites, no disturbance is expected as management activities should not be required. As previously mentioned, access routes through 09 sites with thick humus forms should be avoided.

5.0 Stand Susceptibility to Mountain Pine Beetle

The mountain pine beetle has been one of the natural disturbances that have historically affected the ecosystems in the Park. Old scarring due to beetle is moderately common on older trees; however the current infestation sweeping much of the province constitutes a serious forest health threat to much of the young and mature pine in the Park. A rating of probability and consequence of selected BC Parks identified Jackman Flats as having a high probability of impact by beetle and consequences that would be extreme (Blackwell 2005).

The Park is comprised of a combination of young forest, mature forest and some shrub herb communities (Figure 10). Table 2 shows the structural stage classes that were used. Structural stage is useful in determining stand susceptibility to beetle. Lodgepole pine is the predominant tree within the Park, is often the only tree species present in 02 and 04 ecosystems, and is a leading species in most other ecosystems. Most ages and diameters of lodgepole pine within the Park are between 70-90 years and 20-30 cm (Figure 10). Tree density varies depending on soil moisture; xeric sites have tree densities between 50-200 stems per hectare (sph) while subxeric and submesic sites have densities of 500-1500 sph.

Table 2. Structural stage classes (RIC, 1998).

Code	Description
Sparse/bryoid	Initial stages of succession; from no vegetative cover to dominant bryoid/lichen cover
Herb	herb dominated communities; <10% tree cover, < 20% shrub cover
Shrub/Herb	communities dominated by shrubby vegetation < 10m tall; tree regeneration may be abundant; tree cover < 10%
Pole/Sapling	trees > 10m tall have overtopped shrub and herb layer; dense stands usually less than 40 yrs since disturbance; includes stagnated older stands
Young Forest	self-thinning evident with canopy layers developed; more open than Pole/Sapling; usually 40-80 yrs since disturbance
Mature Forest	main canopy trees mature; well-developed understory often with advance regeneration; usually 80-250 yrs since disturbance
Old Forest	old structurally complex stands with snags and coarse woody debris; > 250 yrs since disturbance

Figure 10. Structural stages in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

The susceptibility of lodgepole pine to mountain pine beetle is well established (Shore and Safranyik 1992). The hazard rating for lodgepole pine reflects its suitability at the stand and tree level for beetle colonization and reproduction. The related tree mortality is a function of the breeding success of the beetles. At present, beetle populations are low to moderate in the Park, however in light of the present rates of spread of the beetle and the breeding success due to favourable environmental conditions, the hazard rating of the Park should be viewed as High.

Historical attempts to stop insect outbreaks have been unsuccessful and expensive. An epidemic of mountain pine beetle in Crater Lake National Park, Oregon in the early 1900’s led to the first large-scale project to control the outbreak. Efforts included burning felled trees and exposing infested logs to solar radiation, which started in 1925 and continued until 1934. The decline of the outbreak was attributed not so much to control efforts but to the cold winters in 1932 and 1933 and the depletion of susceptible host trees (Wickman 1990). In B.C., significant efforts were made to control mountain pine beetle in E.C. Manning Provincial Park. Since 1978, significant resources have been allocated by the B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Parks in efforts to reduce beetle losses in the park and to prevent the spread to adjacent areas. Recent control efforts have had no significant effect on mountain pine beetle populations, which have continued to increase, leading to severe mortality.

The object of small scale falling and burning exercises has been to provide a tool with a more limited impact upon ecosystems that would reduce or control beetle populations until natural conditions or disease caused high rates of mortality or reduced breeding success. Current high beetle population sizes and dynamics have rendered this method ineffective at controlling beetle populations. Extensive use of this tool throughout the Park will have little effect on the infestation and lodgepole pine mortality rates. However it does have the potential to significantly alter stand structure by limiting snag recruitment and inputs of coarse woody debris. The high costs associated with small scale but frequent entry fall and burn activities are also prohibitive, when considered in regards to effectiveness per dollar.

While a pine beetle hazard rating assessment was not completed for the Park, certain factors are clearly important in determining hazard. Shore and Safranyik (1992) identified stand density as an important factor in determining the susceptibility of stands to mountain pine beetle. The susceptibility rating has three factors that vary within the Park:

1) percentage of stand basal area susceptible to attack

2) age (<60, 60-80, >80 years)

3) stems per hectare (<250, 250-750, 750-1500, 1500-2000, 2000-2500, >2500)

Clearly, the high percentage of pine and its older age distribution are factors that contribute to the susceptibility of forested stands in the Park. The most variable factor is tree density. Shore et al. (2000) observed that lodgepole pine stands between 750-1500 sph had the highest mortality rates. Figure 11 shows estimates of pine density (dbh >7.5 cm) based upon field observations and photo interpretation. Approximately 179 ha in the Park have pine densities less than 250 sph, primarily in xeric and wetter ecosystems and on anthropogenic sites such as old fields or cutbanks. Lodgepole pine density is intermediate on submesic sites (243 ha) with densities of between 250-800 sph. The densest pine stands with the greatest susceptibility to mountain pine beetle are generally located on mesic sites (192 ha), where moisture is less constraining on tree density.

Figure 11. Estimated density of lodgepole pine greater than 7.5cm in dbh in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

A fall and burn program has been implemented in the Park to help combat the beetle. Fall and burn locations where treatment or monitoring was recommended for 2004 were reviewed in respect to site sensitivity to disturbance and lodgepole pine density. When fall and burn recommendations are compared with the map of site sensitivity to disturbance (Figure 12), it is clear that most of the fall and burn activities are located on sites with low sensitivity to disturbance and none are located on sites with a rating of high. In general, most of the fall and burn sites are located in stands with high pine density, which accords with the observations of Shore et al. (2000). The two maps are similar as tree density in the Park is largely a reflection of edaphic conditions, which also influence the factors considered in the sensitivity rating such as understory species composition and topographic position.

Figure 12. Map showing recommended fall and burn and monitor sites overlaid on site sensitivity to disturbance in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

6.0 Fuel Types

Fire was historically a frequent natural disturbance in the Park. Mixed severity fires appear to have been common, with low severity surface fires predominant in the 02 Dune and 02x communities. Fire scars are evident on many trees in these two ecosystems.

One of the threats associated with mountain pine beetle infestations is the creation of hazardous fuel complexes due to tree mortality. When cured, these fuels are volatile and depending upon stand density, they can result in fires with high head fire intensities. The C7 fuel types within the Park are relatively unique in the Robson Valley (Table 3). Due to the dune complex, a significant proportion of the Park is C7 – a fuel type generally associated with open stands, commonly ponderosa pine stands. In the Park, this fuel type has low rates of spread and low head fire intensity. It provides an excellent natural fuel break as it only supports surface fires. There are also significant areas with deciduous shrub cover and components of pole sapling lodgepole pine. These are identified as M2 fuel types to best approximate their fire behaviour. The spread rates and head fire intensity are low for this fuel type. A small amount of 01b grass dominated fuels was also identified. Spread rates for this fuel type can be quite high but the head fire intensity is low.

Table 3. Fuel types in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

Code	Description	Fire Behaviour	Area
C3	Coniferous, young forests with moderate to closed canopies	Moderate rates of spread, moderate Head Fire Intensity	198
C4	Coniferous, shrub-herb stands (< 10m), and pole sapling stands (> 10m and < 40 yrs) with moderate to closed canopies	High rates of spread, high Head Fire Intensity	41
C5	Coniferous, mature and old stands	Low to moderate rates of spread, low to moderate Head Fire Intensity	39
C7	Coniferous, pole sapling and young forest stands with open canopies	Low rates of spread, primarily surface fire with low Head Fire Intensity	260
M2	Mixed deciduous/coniferous stands	Low rates of spread, low Head Fire Intensity	72
O1b	Grass or shrub dominated with little tree cover	May have high rates of spread but low Head Fire Intensity	5

In the coniferous dominated stands, three fuel types were identified. C5 has low to moderate rates of spread and low to moderate head fire intensities and is generally associated with mature and old forests with moderate crown closure. C3 fuel types are the most common forested fuel types in the Park. These are generally associated with young or mature forests with 65-80% crown closure. The rates of spread are moderate as is the head fire intensity. Suppression efforts can be difficult in these fuel types. C4 fuel types are typical of pole sapling to young forest stands with high crown closure and moderate ladder fuels. In the Park, these fuel types are often associated with the dense spruce dominated stands along the southwestern boundary. Fire behaviour can be extreme, with high rates of spread and head fire intensity; considerable suppression efforts are often required in these fuel types.

Figure 13. Map showing the fuel types in Jackman Flats Provincial Park.

7.0 Mountain Pine Beetle Strategy

It is difficult to balance the threat of pine beetle infestation and its associated risks against the impact of beetle treatments on Park ecosystems. BC Parks has the responsibility to ensure that forests within parks do not endanger surrounding lands as a result of forest health or fuels issues. They also have a responsibility to manage the ecosystems within parks to maintain disturbance regimes and the associated forest structure and seral distributions that provide suitable habitat for plant and animal species. As a result, the costs and benefits of treatments and risks must be weighed.

While it is impossible to determine the potential severity of beetle attack, it is possible to make subjective estimates of the likelihood of certain scenarios due to the present population dynamics of the beetle and the stand types located in the Park. Three general scenarios are presented below to facilitate discussion of treatment options and outcomes:

1. Beetle population increases dramatically resulting in high mortality of lodgepole pine especially in the denser stands. Scattered young or mature trees and advance regeneration would remain as well as spruce and aspen along the southwestern edge of the Park. Mortality would be less on the open 02x dunes (C7 fuel type) but still considerable.

Impact – Mortality would be highest in the denser stands, however open 02x and 02 stands would also experience high levels of mortality due to ‘spillover’ from the dense stands. This would result in a high crown fuel hazard in the C3, C4, and C5 fuel types for the short term due to curing. Over the long term surface fuel hazard would rise as trees decay and become coarse woody debris. Stand structure would change to shrub herb or pole sapling with occasional surviving young or mature trees. Snags and coarse woody debris would increase proportionally, which would provide habitat for numerous insects, birds, and mammals. These snags would also provide an altered microclimate for pine regeneration. Some lichen communities might increase, especially those with Cladina mitis and Stereocaulon condensatum, however species such as Peltigera aphosa and other lichen species requiring partial shade in forested sites would be negatively affected by the increase in solar insolation.

Post Attack Treatment – The increase in fire hazard associated with the fuels in the denser stands in the Park would require fuels reduction treatments. This would negate some of the benefits associated with snags and coarse woody debris and have an impact on advance regeneration. If clean up was not relatively prompt (within the first 3-5 years after attack), Worksafe regulations would reduce the ability of crews to retain snags due to hazard tree concerns. Open stands could be left untreated as fuel loading would be low.

Probability – Moderate to High given the current beetle dynamics and stand characteristics in the Park.

2. Beetle population increases moderately resulting in partial mortality and a mosaic of scattered dead trees and patches of dead trees.

Impact – Tree mortality would probably be highest in the denser pine stands with more limited morality in the 02 and 02x ecosystems. Fuel hazard would increase in localized areas where mortality was highest. Single dead attacked trees would not affect fire behaviour dramatically at the stand level and would provide forage and habitat for a variety of birds and insects. Coarse woody debris would rise moderately over time but as current levels are relatively low, increases in surface fuel would be negligible except in areas of high mortality. The effect on lichen communities would largely be restricted to those requiring shaded conditions and would be minimal due to the patchy nature of tree mortality.

Post Attack Treatment – Fire hazard associated with the fuels in stands with high mortality might require localized fuels reduction treatments, however the extent and continuity of fuels would need to be assessed. Falling and burning could be employed in areas where beetle attack resulted in moderate densities of standing dead trees.

Probability – Moderate given the current beetle dynamics and the large areas of low-density pine associated with 02 and 02x ecosystems which reduce the susceptibility of these stands to beetle attack.

3. Mortality rates could continue at current levels or decrease.

Impact – There would be little associated impact upon the Park. Continued snag and coarse woody debris recruitment would occur.

Post Attack Treatment – Current fall and burn could be continued or halted.

Probability – Low given the current dynamics of the beetle population in BC and this region and the stand characteristics in much of the Park.

Assuming that the rough subjective probabilities are relatively reflective of real outcomes, either moderate or high mortality can be expected in the Park. A stabilized or decreased beetle population is relatively unlikely. The outcomes of the low, moderate and high mortality scenarios are dramatically different.

A decision whether to implement a treatment strategy or not is reflective of the resource manager’s attitude towards risk, the cost of the treatment strategy, the anticipated effectiveness of the strategy, and the benefits associated with the strategy. A risk averse approach would assume that the worst scenario is most likely to occur, leading to a treatment strategy that would reduce the probability of that state of nature occurring or reduce the impacts of its occurrence. A strategy that accepts risk would assume that the scenario that will occur is likely to be positive, having no or moderate beetle attack, and negligible impacts. This approach accepts risk and reduces the costs associated with more expensive treatment options.

7.1 Treatment Strategies

Three potential treatment strategies are briefly outlined below. It is recommended that the two strategies that involve active management not be considered in areas where ecosystem sensitivity to disturbance is High. Table 4 shows a comparison of the impacts of the three strategies outlined below and the three scenarios previously described. A combination of all three approaches, depending upon the ecosystem and stand characteristics of specific areas within the Park, may be the most appropriate response to managing the population and effects of the beetle.

Do nothing

This strategy is passive and takes a wait and see approach. It is cost effective on the short-term but depending on attack levels and mortality, future costs associated with fuel may be considerable. It is most appropriate in areas where susceptibility to beetle is low, when beetle populations are endemic, or when the negative effects of treatments outweigh the benefits.

Fall and Burn

Fall and burn, combined with beetle probes to identify green attacked trees, is designed to reduce beetle populations by essentially predating on the beetle. The effectiveness of this treatment is highest when population numbers are low, becoming ineffective when populations reach large or epidemic levels. It has minimal impact upon fuel loading and therefore its use is limited to its ability to control beetle populations. This treatment may be most appropriate in stands where susceptibility to beetle is moderate such as in mixed or low density stands, where beetle population numbers are low, or where more intensive treatments are not feasible for financial or ecological reasons.

The location of fall and burn activities should be determined by beetle probes but restricted to areas with Very Low to Moderate Sensitivity to Disturbance.

Stand Thinning

Stand thinning can be carried out on selected stands with characteristics that make them the most susceptible to beetle attack. This strategy takes a more proactive approach than the Fall and Burn treatment, as it attempts to reduce the vulnerability of stands to attack by altering stand conditions favourable to beetle attack. It provides additional value in that it helps reduce fuel in the event of high tree mortality. The goals of this treatment are to reduce stand density to 400-600 sph (with inter-tree spacing of 4-5 metres) and retain the largest and healthiest individuals. While stand thinning may reduce susceptibility to beetle attack, it does not make the stand invulnerable. It is most appropriate in stands where susceptibility is high. The most effective stands to ‘beetle proof’ using thinning are:

· between the ages of 60-120

· >20 cm in dbh

· stands with lodgepole pine densities between 900-1600 sph

· windfirm

· disease free, with infested trees comprising <10% of the total stand (Whitehead et al, 2004).

Stand thinning should be restricted to Very Low-Moderate Sensitivity areas. Implementation should ensure that variations in density and distribution of trees in some treated stands be considered to create structural diversity. Although this reduces the effectiveness of the ‘beetle proofing’ it will help manage for biodiversity goals.

Table 4. A comparison of the costs and benefits of three treatment strategies and three levels of tree mortality.

Impact	States of Nature
	High Mortality			Moderate Mortality			Low or No Mortality
	Do Nothing	Fall and Burn	Stand Thinning	Do Nothing	Fall and Burn	Stand Thinning	Do Nothing	Fall and Burn	Stand Thinning
Treatment Costs	None	Moderate	High	None	Moderate	High	None	Moderate	High
Treatment Effectiveness	None	Ineffective	Low to Moderate Effectiveness	None	Ineffective	Moderate Effectiveness	None	Moderate Effectiveness	High Effectiveness
Treatment Impact	None
Fuels	High Increases	High Increases	Moderate Increases	Moderate Increases	Moderate Increases	Low-Moderate Decrease	No Changes	Slight Decrease	Moderate Decrease
Fuel Treatment Costs	High	High	Moderate	High	Moderate	Low	None	None	None
Stand Structural Diversity	High Reductions	High Reductions	Moderate to High Reductions	Moderate to High Increase	Low Increase	Moderate Increase	Moderate Increase	Low Reduction	Moderate Increase
Lichens	High impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	High impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	Moderate to High impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	No to Low Impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	Low impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	Moderate Impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	No Impact	Low Impact on Shade Requiring Lichens	Moderate Impact on Shade Requiring Lichens
Visuals	High	High	Moderate to High	Moderate	Moderate	Low-Moderate	None	Low	Moderate

8.0 Recreational Access Impacts

Restrictions on bike and vehicle access, particularly ATVs, implemented by BC Parks, are important in preserving the ecosystems within the Park. During the field reconnaissance for this project, current ATV use was noted on the southwestern side of the Park. While this was limited in extent, the areas in which it was noted had significantly lower lichen cover than undisturbed areas. These ecosystems lack resilience to withstand frequent intense disturbance. BC Parks should review unofficial and official access routes in the Park and improve or install barriers to specifically prevent ATV use. Educational signage should be used at these points.

If it is not already known, BC Parks might want to consider determining the cause of the change in the water table on dry 09 site series where young pine are currently growing and investigate whether mitigation measures are possible or desirable.

9.0 References

Blackwell B.A. 2005. Mountain pine beetle assessment for selected BC Parks and Protected Areas. Unpublished report, MWLAP, Victoria.

Coxson, D.S., and J. Marsh. 2001. Lichen chronosequences (postfire and postharvest) in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests of northern interior British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 79: 1449-1464.

Eng, M., A. Fall, J. Hughes, T. Shore, B.Riel and P. Hall. 2004. Provincial level projection of current mountain pine beetle outbreak: An overview of the model (BCMPB) and draft results of year 1 of the project. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/bcmpb/

Goward, T. 2000. A visitor impact assessment for Jackman Flats Protected Areas. Prepared for B.C. Parks.

Johansson, P., and P. Reich. 2005. Population size and fire intensity determine post-fire abundance in grassland lichens. Appl. Veg. Science. 8: 193-198.

Meidinger, D.V. and J. Pojar (eds.). 1991. Ecosystems of British Columbia. Special Report Series No. 6, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C.

Resources Inventory Committee (RIC) 1998. Standard for terrestrial ecosystem mapping in British Columbia. B.C. Res. Inc. Comm., Victoria, B.C.

Shore, T.L., and Safranyik, L. 1992. Susceptibility and risk-rating systems for the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine stands. For. Can. Pac. Yukon Reg. Inf. Rep. No. BC-X-336.

Shore, T.L., L. Safranyik, and J.P. Lemieux. 2000. Susceptibility of lodgepole pine stands to the mountain pine beetle: testing of a rating system. Can. J. For. Res. 30: 44-49.

Whitehead, R., P. Martin, and A. Powelson. 2001. Reducing Stand and Landscape Susceptibility to Mountain Pine Beetle. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria B.C.

Wickman, B.E. 1990. The battle against bark beetles in Crater Lake National Park: 1925-34. USDA For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-259. 40pp.

10.0 Appendix A – Data Dictionary for Jackman Flats

Data Fields

Code

Description

PA_NAME

Protected Area Name

FCODE

ArcGIS reference field

POLY_NBR

Polygon number

SOURCE

Data source

BGCUNIT

Biogeoclimatic unit (combined BGC zone/subzone/variant)

ASP

Aspect

FUEL_CR

Crown fuel loading class

FUEL_SU

Surface fuel loading class

FUEL_LD

Ladder fuel loading class

FUEL_AL

Combined fuel loading class

Site group

ECO1_DEC

1^st ecosystem component - % decile

ECO1_SS

1^st ecosystem component - site series

ECO1_SM1

1^st ecosystem component - 1^st site modifier

ECO1_SM2

1^st ecosystem component - 2^nd site modifier

ECO1_SM3

1^st ecosystem component - 3^rd site modifier

ECO1_STR

1^st ecosystem component - structural stage

ECO1_STD

1^st ecosystem component – stand composition modifier

ECO2_DEC

2^nd ecosystem component - % decile

ECO2_SS

2^nd ecosystem component - site series

ECO2_SM1

2^nd ecosystem component - 1^st site modifier

ECO2_SM2

2^nd ecosystem component - 2^nd site modifier

ECO2_SM3

2^nd ecosystem component - 3^rd site modifier

ECO2_STR

2^nd ecosystem component - structural stage

ECO2_STD

2^nd ecosystem component - stand composition modifier

ECO3_DEC

3^rd ecosystem component - % decile

ECO3_SS

3^rd ecosystem component - site series

ECO3_SM1

3^rd ecosystem component - 1^st site modifier

ECO3_SM2

3^rd ecosystem component - 2^nd site modifier

ECO3_SM3

3^rd ecosystem component - 3^rd site modifier

ECO3_STR

3^rd ecosystem component - structural stage

ECO3_STD

3^rd ecosystem component - stand composition modifier

AREA

Polygon area in hectares

FUEL_TYPE

Fuel type according to National benchmark fuel types

SENS

Ecosystem sensitivity to disturbance

DENS_HAZ

Lodgepole pine density as indicator of susceptibility to mountain pine beetle

Field Descriptions

Source

Code	Description
G	Ground inspection plot – data recorded on plot cards from the ground
P	Photo interpretation – data interpreted from air photo
V	Visual inspection – data noted on air photos

Biogeoclimatic Unit (Zone/Subzone/Variant)

Code	Description
SBSdh	Dry Hot Sub-Boreal Spruce

Aspect

Code	Name	Description
W	Warm	slopes >35% and between 135⁰ to 285⁰
C	Cool	slopes >35% and between 285⁰ to 135⁰
G	Gentle	slopes < 35%

Site Group

Code	Site Group	Name	Comments
CWHms1 units
01	ZO	FdSx – Rough-leaved Ricegrass	submesic to mesic/poor to medium sites (zonal)
02	DR	Pl – Velvet-leafed blueberry - Lichen	very dry/poor sites on deep sand, bedrock or very thin soils
03	DR	Fd - Lichen	subxeric to xeric/poor sites
04	DR	Pl – Pinegrass \ Feather moss	subxeric to submesic/poor to medium sites
05	MP	Pl – Labrador tea	mesic/poor sites
06	MR	Pl – Spruce - Thimbleberry	Subhygric/medium to rich sites
09	WE	Sb - Sphagnum	wet/poor sparsely forested bog
CB		Cutbank
CF		Cultivated Field

Site Modifiers

Code	Name	Description
an	anthropogenic	sites on extensive disturbed soils, usually associated with construction spoils.
x	drier than typical	drier than typical range for site series
po	poor productivity	sites with poorer than normal productivity for site unit
ri	ridge	sites on pronounced ridge crests
sh	shallow	sites with predominantly shallow (<1m) soils
sl	slope	sites with slopes 35-70%

Structural Stage (RIC 1998)

Code	Description
1	Sparse/bryoid < 20% shrub cover, < 10% tree cover
2	Herb - herb dominated communities; <10% tree cover, < 20% shrub cover
3	Shrub/Herb – > 20% shrub cover, tree cover < 10%
4	Pole/Sapling - trees > 10m tall have overtopped shrub and herb layer; dense stands usually less than 40 yrs since disturbance; includes stagnated older stands
5	Young Forest - self-thinning evident with canopy layers developed; more open than PS; usually 40-80 yrs
6	Mature Forest - main canopy trees mature; well-developed understory often with advance regen; usually 80-250 yrs
7	Old Forest - old structurally complex stands with snags and CWD; > 250 yrs

Fuel Type

Code	Description
C2	Coniferous, pole sapling stands (<40 yrs) with high stem density and high crown closure (>80%)
C3	Coniferous, young forests with moderate to closed canopies
C4	Coniferous, shrub-herb stands (< 10m), and pole sapling stands (> 10m and < 40 yrs) with moderate to closed canopies
C5	Coniferous, mature and old stands
C7	Coniferous, pole sapling and young forest stands with open canopies
D1	Deciduous stands
M2	Mixed deciduous/coniferous stands
O1b	Grass or shrub dominated with little tree cover
Non-fuel	Any significant areas with non-flammable materials (i.e. rock or pavement) or water bodies

Sensitivity To Disturbance

Code	Description
Very Low	Very low sensitivity to disturbance
Low	Low sensitivity to disturbance
Moderate	Moderate sensitivity to disturbance
High	High sensitivity to disturbance

Density Hazard

Code	Description
Low	< 250 stems of lodgepole pine per hectare
Moderate	250-750 stems of lodgepole pine per hectare
High	> 750 stems of lodgepole pine per hectare

11.0 About B. A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd.

We are Canadian forestry consultants dedicated to providing high quality, cost-efficient professional forestry and environmental management services. We have diverse experience in a range of forest management disciplines and are at the forefront of Canadian forestry and forestry practice in BC.

We are based in North Vancouver and Williams Lake, BC. For more information about us please visit http://www.bablackwell.com.

11.1 Sustainable Forest Management

We have diverse experience in a range of forest management disciplines. Services include: Forest Fire Management, Forest Engineering, Silviculture, Bioenergy, Forest Health, Pine Beetle, Danger Tree and Windthrow Management, Timber Valuation, Forest Practices Audits, Forestry Research.

11.2 GIS & Cartography

Our leading-edge GIS department has wide-ranging capabilities in programming, GIS analysis, and cartography. We offer professional consulting and technical services in the areas of Digital Mapping, GIS Applications and Spatial Analysis.

For more information about us please visit http://www.bablackwell.com.

[1] For a complete list of lichen species found in Jackman Flats please refer to “A Visitor Impact Assessment For Jackman Flats Protected Area” by Trevor Goward, June 25^th, 2000.